Marcus Aurelius is remembered not only as one of the Five Good Emperors but as a man who ruled himself before ruling others. Long before leadership seminars and self-help books, he embodied the Stoic ideal of reason and restraint in the chaos of empire.
Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180 AD) was both emperor and philosopher, the closest history has come to Plato’s ideal of a philosopher-king. We know him through his letters to his teacher Fronto, the laws he enacted, and the accounts of contemporary historians. But his true legacy lives on in Meditations, his private journal of reflections and reminders. Written only for himself, it remains one of the most widely read works of philosophy in history.
Early Life and Education
Born Marcus Annius Verus into an influential Roman family, he lost his father at a young age and was partly raised by his grandfather, a man of status who served twice as consul. This early loss was Marcus’s first encounter with death, one that would echo throughout his life.
Biographers describe him as a serious child, yet active in sports like boxing, wrestling, running, and falconry. He received an excellent education, studying rhetoric, Greek, Latin, and philosophy, the foundation that would shape the rest of his life.
The Path to Becoming Emperor
At an early age, Marcus came to the attention of Emperor Hadrian, who admired his honesty and gave him the nickname Verissimus, “the most truthful one.” Around the age of six, Hadrian granted him equestrian rank and later appointed him to the College of the Salii.
Hadrian had no children and needed a successor. He first chose Lucius Ceionius Commodus, but after his premature death, Hadrian selected the senator Titus Aurelius Antoninus on the condition that Antoninus adopt both Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, the late Commodus’s son.
Hadrian expected Antoninus to rule briefly and then pass power to Marcus, but Antoninus reigned for twenty-three years. During this time, Marcus learned the arts of leadership and moderation, lessons he would later record in the first book of his Meditations as expressions of gratitude to his adoptive father.
Marcus Aurelius the Emperor
When Antoninus Pius died in 161 AD, Marcus Aurelius became emperor at the age of forty — and immediately made Lucius Verus his co-ruler. It was the first time Rome had two emperors. For Marcus, this was a wise and cautious move: it prevented rivalry over succession and ensured stability.
The young rulers soon faced major challenges. A plague, later called the Antonine Plague, spread through the empire, likely brought back by soldiers returning from campaigns in the East. Meanwhile, the Parthians attacked Armenia, testing the strength of the new emperors. Lucius Verus was sent to command the army with the experienced general Avidius Cassius. Though Verus enjoyed the privileges of power more than its burdens, Cassius won the war and temporarily restored peace.
The Wars in the North
In the last decade of his reign, Marcus Aurelius turned his attention to the northern frontier, where Germanic tribes threatened Roman lands. It was during these difficult campaigns that he wrote parts of his Meditations. Book II begins “On the River Gran, among the Quadi,” and Book III “In Carnuntum,” both in present-day Austria.
After the Parthians’ defeat, new conflicts erupted in the north. Marcus and Lucius Verus both went to the front, but Verus soon fell ill and died, likely from the plague. Marcus now bore full responsibility for the empire and its armies, without much combat experience.
He learned quickly, aided by his trusted general and son-in-law, Pompeianus. His Stoic training helped him stay calm amid crisis and loss. During one campaign, a rumor spread that he had died. Avidius Cassius, the general in the East, used the moment to declare himself emperor. Marcus marched to confront him, but before the armies met, Cassius was assassinated by his own men. The civil war that might have shattered Rome was over before it began.
The Emperor’s Final Years
Marcus Aurelius and his wife, Faustina, had thirteen children, though only five survived to adulthood. His only surviving son, Commodus, was made co-emperor in 177 AD.
In 180 AD, while on campaign in the north, Marcus Aurelius fell ill, likely from the same plague that had haunted his reign, and died in his military camp. Before his death, he asked that his son continue the campaign under Pompeianus’s guidance, but Commodus instead returned to Rome, paid off the tribes, and proclaimed peace. It was the beginning of Rome’s decline.
Historians often question why Marcus Aurelius chose his son as successor when previous emperors had adopted capable heirs. Perhaps tradition guided him; perhaps hope blinded him. Whatever the reason, Commodus proved the opposite of his father: indulgent, cruel, and detached from philosophy. After five good emperors, his reign marked the empire’s moral descent.
The Philosopher King
From an early age, Marcus Aurelius was educated for leadership. He studied rhetoric with Fronto, but over time grew closer to his Stoic mentors: Apollonius of Chalcedon, Sextus of Chaeronea, and Junius Rusticus, the last having the greatest influence on him.
Junius Rusticus introduced him to the works of Epictetus, the freed slave turned philosopher whose teachings shaped Marcus’s thought. Though they never met, the connection between them is clear throughout Meditations. Marcus’s notes reveal a man constantly striving to act with justice, humility, and reason, principles drawn directly from Stoic philosophy.
Meditations gives us a rare insight into the inner life of the most powerful man of his time. It is filled with reminders to control one’s thoughts, accept fate, and serve others with integrity. Whether he intended it or not, Marcus left a guide for anyone seeking strength of character. Leaders from George Washington to Nelson Mandela have kept this book close as a source of steadiness in adversity.
The Legacy of Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius’s legacy is immense. He set the standard for moral leadership and showed that philosophy and power can coexist. His example reminds us that greatness lies not in conquest but in self-control.
As he wrote:
“Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be one.”
His life remains a model for anyone who seeks to live by reason, virtue, and service.
You can watch the YouTube link to the lecture at the bottom of this post, it highlights why Marcus Aurelius was one of the five good Roman Emperors and what made him come so close to Plato’s ideal of the Philosofer’s king.
FAQ: Marcus Aurelius and His Stoic Philosophy
Who was Marcus Aurelius?
A Roman emperor (121–180 AD) and Stoic philosopher, best known for Meditations, his private reflections on virtue, duty, and the nature of life.
What is Marcus Aurelius’s philosophy?
He followed Stoicism, a practical philosophy that teaches living in accordance with nature, focusing on what we can control, and acting with virtue and reason.
Why is he called the philosopher-king?
He embodied the Stoic ideal of a ruler guided by wisdom rather than ambition, aligning closely with Plato’s vision of a philosopher governing for the common good.
Why did Marcus Aurelius choose Commodus as his successor?
He followed the Roman tradition of hereditary succession, hoping his advisors would guide Commodus. Unfortunately, Commodus rejected Stoic principles and became one of Rome’s worst emperors.
Why is Meditations still important today?
Because it offers timeless guidance on handling adversity, maintaining integrity, and finding peace of mind, lessons that remain as relevant now as in the second century.
Further Reading
If you’d like to explore more, these sources provide deeper insight:
- Meditations by Marcus Aurelius, translated by Gregory Hays
- How to Think Like a Roman Emperor by Donald Robertson
- The Inner Citadel by Pierre Hadot
Each reveals a different dimension of the philosopher-emperor and the enduring value of Stoic thought.
Continue reading about other Stoic philosophers such as Seneca, Epictetus, and Michel de Montaigne. For Marcus Aurelius’s most inspiring passages, visit our Marcus Aurelius Quotes page.
Want to Explore More Stoic Practices?
Book a free consultation with one of our Stoic Coaches to get support. Or read more about How to Practice Stoicism here.
Listen to the Via Stoica Podcast on Spotify, Apple Podcasts, or YouTube.
Author Bio
Benny Voncken is the co-founder of Via Stoica, where he helps people apply Stoic philosophy to modern life. He is a Stoic coach, writer, and podcast host of The Via Stoica Podcast. With almost a decade of teaching experience and daily Stoic practice, Benny creates resources, workshops, and reflections that make ancient wisdom practical today.
2 Comments
Vanessa · 16/04/2022 at 7:47 pm
After reading Meditations from cover to back and reviewing it, I got the feeling I like Marcus, not necessarily what stoicism has been portrayed to be, or the way it is embodied by some. I’m recalling what was done with psychology and its hyper-focus on cognition. From my point of view, Marcus saw reason as a tempered combination of rational thought and intuition (inner guide), which has an emotional aspect to it. There’s also the God question that most people seem afraid to bring up and which has been made irrational by many. Talking about Nature seems acceptable, but God (or Gods, according to Marcus) not so much. There seems to be a need to keep it on the concrete, material side of human existence. I find curious the story about Commodus. What could have guided Marcus’ decision? Blind faith? I will try to look it up. Thanks for sharing all this information, it’s awesome to tap into it. As usual, my favorite part is the beginning, where imagination introduces us to what comes next. Brilliant.
Benny Voncken · 17/04/2022 at 1:48 pm
Thank you, Vanessa. You’re takes on Marcus Aurelius are very interesting and they raise some good questions. I’ll look into them further as well. The God point you raise as well is a good one.
Thank you for your comments on my writing. It’s very motivational.